The earliest body of Indian thought that is available for historian to read and understand is the Vedic literature that has been preserved meticulously. What was before that age and what about Harappan civilization etc, are questions that can not be answered satisfactorily because they still remain in the sphere of speculation awaiting confirmation. Certainly what existed before ought to have been absorbed but it is not possible to isolate them now and point out that these were the original concepts. We are surely on firm grounds from the time of the Vedas.
Nor are we convinced about the suggested relative dates of the Vedas themselves and often the term vedic is used in a vague manner. However we are sure that the Ṛg veda is the earliest collection followed by Yajurveda, for the later themselves name the Ṛg veda as the earliest and verbatim cite hymns from the former. Further these are collections compiled later on thematic order but a study of these do show that Ṛg vedic hymns are beautiful poetic images of Nature in their various manifestations and the Yajur vedic hymns address themselves to use the hymns, mentioned in brief like sūtras for use in rituals with their beginning only, for example there are hymns on Rudra in the Ṛg veda which are verbatim recited in the Satarudrīya of the Kṛṣṇa Yajur-veda which are addressed to the rising sun. The Kṛṣṇa Yajur veda has many Vedic sacrifices and specific instructions to perform them and often resort to narrating some legends extolling the greatness of that particular sacrifice that conferred specific prayer and that sacrifice should be performed. These legends and the sacrifice led to providing imagery for the later period to appear as basis of Hindu Iconography, as for example the legend of Śiva's Tripura-samhāra mentioned in detail in Taittrīya samhita, is further elaborated in later Purāṇas and provide the basis for them and their variations. But essentially the Vedic society believed fully in sacrifice in fire Agni by pouring ghee, or cooked food etc to various deities. The prayers differ for which different sacrifices are mentioned. There are 33,000 gods or let us say the Nature's manifest powers to which offerings are made. While making libations to different deities the hymns connected with that deity are recited and offerings made. This is a form of invocation in fire for various deities and the offering made. The Offering is said to be carried by Agni to the respective deities and thus he is the symbol through which the offering is made. If the respective hymn is not recited with the offering it will not reach the concerned deity. As these hymns are kept in the mind while offering in fire it has established a formula for the ritual.
This fundamental concept should be understood for the Hindu worship of Images, The images made of stone, metal, ivory, wood, stucco, paintings etc are only the symbols representing different gods and the worship is done to the god with the recitation of the respective hymn which, it was believed, would reach the concerned deities. The Hindu worship falls specifically into two parts the gross form or Image made of material called the visual symbol “sthula bimba”. The word bimba for the image indicates it is not the real God but only a symbol of the god, a fact repeatedly mentioned in ritual treatises. The worship will take place only when the respective hymnal imagery is recited with the external symbol, it reaches the concerned deity. This recitation is called mantramūrti the mental imagery. So image worship is essentially dependant on the mental poetic invocation mostly from the Vedic hymns and hence all Hindu temple worship are extension of what was done in Agni in the Vedic period. All the stages of worship followed for the temple images are the very same stages and order as for Vedic sacrifices. So there is no doubt that the temple ritual treatises are later than the Vedic system and are rooted in it.
What is brahman? The Veda itself says that the āhutis (offerings) in the fire is brahman i.e., the act of offering in fire is brahman. devas āhutiḥ brahman āvadantaḥ. It therefore suggests that the yajña itself was called brahman. The śukla yajurveda at another place calls Agni as Āditya giver of all things. Agni is called Āditya, Chandrama, Sukra, Brahma, Āpas, Prajāpati, and Hiraṇya-garbha. He is said to remain engulfing all space and is mentioned as First bom. He enters the womb (garbha) and was born and will be born. He remains in every place of beings and so called sarvato mukha. Rudra is called Vāstoṣpati in the Veda. He appears as three effulgent light triṇi jyotīmsi and remains steadying the three spaces, the earth (bhu), the heaven (dyaus) and the intermediate space (antarikṣam). The śukla yajurveda ask to whom else can we offer our sacrifice.
The Vedantins consider that he who knows, that Agni resides in the cave of the heart and is in three forms as creation, sustenance and dissolution, becomes parmātmā. Here we find the same Agni identified with multiple gods and also reside in the heart of Vedantin. As this concept is found in the core of the Vedic Samhita in which the Vedantin is also mentioned, the idea is evidently as old as the Vedas and not later. The three jyotis (lights) Sūrya, Chandra and Agni, who are said to be the gods of sṛṣti (Creation), sthiti (sustenance) and laya (dissolution) which later flower into the Trinity Brahma, Viṣṇu, and Śiva.
Agni's dual nature is sung in different ways as Agni-Soma, Agni-Indra. Similarly there are other dual deities like Soma-Rudra, Mitra-Varuṇa, Soma-Pauṣṇi (Pānian), Rudra and Maruts and so on. When two powers are attributed to one and the same deity, the concept of dual deity is introduced. Among such dual deities one of the most important dual deity mentioned in the taittirīya samhtā is “Agnā Viṣṇu” which has escaped the attention of scholars. I have drawn attention of scholars to the importance of this form “Agnā Viṣṇu” in the International Seminar on Art and Religion, held at Chidambaram in 2000.
Agni and Viṣṇu are a combined form to which a particular homa - oblation named vasordhārā is offered. Referring to this homa, the Veda raises the question who is the Devata to whom this homa is offered? What is this dhāra? What is its result? vasordhārām juhoti. kasyai devatāyai juhvat. kasya yesha dhārā iti. The answer comes from the same hymn of the Veda. Saying that this homa is addressed to “Agnā Viṣṇu”. It further says Agni is a Vasu and this is for Agni. Viṣṇu is a Vasu and this dhāra libation is for Viṣṇu. The form of this deity is agna vaiṣṇavi. (agni vasur tasyaiṣā dharā viṣṇur vasur tasyaiṣa dhārā, agnāvaiṣṇavi arccā). The term arceā is used in the sense of a combined image form of Agni and Viṣṇu for purposes of worship. arccā is a term used for an image in temple worship.
Further, the Veda specifically mentions that this is a combined form of Agni and Viṣṇu (tasya ete tanuvau). The term tasya here means “for this Agni” tanuvau means double body. The meaning would be the Agni has these two bodies. Then the Veda further elucidates that one part of the body is terrific ghora and the other part is śiva benign. While Agni is a general name, the terrific and benign are special energies of the same Agni. It is known that Agni has the energy to burn down which is a terrific power. The other one is giving brightness that spreads which is benign. ghora anya śivā anya. Both these are inherent in Agni and can not be separated. So they are inseparably one. Yet we need a name for each one of these energies. One is called Rudra and the other is called Viṣṇu. It is also known that when the fire begins to glow as a flaming one with tremendous heat it starts giving a howling sound and so it was called Rudra. That Agni is Rudra is mentioned here and in many other places of the Vedas (rudro vā eṣa yad agniḥ). This combination of Rudra and Viṣṇu led to the Hari-Hara image i.e, Hari on one side and Hara on the other side. It is a clear reference to Hari-Hara form mentioned in the Veda (F.C. 25). The same passage gives rise to another important form. As Viṣṇu is called Śivā (in feminine gender) it denotes Pārvati as well. It thus gives rise to the Ardhanāri form. Thus the combined forms of Hari-Hara and Ardhanāri are rooted in this Agna-Viṣṇu form of the Veda.
When the offering is made to the Rudra form, the Śatarudrīya hymn is recited and oblation is offered. When Viṣṇu form is intended the Vasordhārā homa is offered. Rudra gets cooled down with the Śatarudrīya hymn, while with the Vasordhārā homa is performed Viṣṇu is pleased. As these two are the principal energies and are invariably propitiated in all the homas the two energies assumed great significance during the passage of time and Śiva and Viṣṇu assumed greater significance in preference to other deities. That also indicates how Śiva and Viṣṇu emerged as important components of the Hindu Pantheon.
Further terrific power of Rudra was associated with manly power and Viṣṇu with the benign power was associated with feminine power and so the right side is assigned to Śiva and the left (vāma bhāga) is assigned to Viṣṇu/Pārvati.
It further gave rise to another interesting concept in later period. As both Viṣṇu and also Pārvati were assigned the same left side of Śiva (F. 96), both Viṣṇu and Pārvati were considered identical in most cases and as brother and sister at another level in Purāṇic legends. Viṣṇu is called Māyin while Pārvati is called Māyā. Viṣṇu and Durgā were held identical when the concept of Agni itself gave rise to Durgā. Since both Śiva and Viṣṇu were identical as Agni there was no difficulty in identifying Durgā and Viṣṇu as identical.
Agni is called Annapati the giver of food. agniḥ vā annapatiḥ, sa eva annam prayacchati. Four Chandas (meters) constitute the body of Agni. While almost all the deities are held identical with Agni, in some instances, especially so as Agni carries the offerings to the deities, there are also hymns that show they were held presiding deities of functions as well, as for example we also find in the Veda names of good number of deities and that they are the presiding deities of different entities.
This list is important as we find the Gods are again and again mentioned in association with the same entities. For example Rudra is called Paśupati rudraḥ paśūnām adhiapti.
It is clear that Hinduism is both a monotheistic and a polytheistic religion. However as all the deities are personified manifestations of Nature's forces and in some instances like mind are abstract deities it is evident it is not man made religion or created by man and so Hinduism has no founder. Any number of Natures forces, found or yet to be discovered could become a god in the context, while Occidental religions claim founders for their religions.
Another point that deserve notice is some hold that Hindus worship horses, monkeys, dogs and cows etc., as gods which they unhesitatingly hold superstitious. The Hindus approach everything on earth as divine and so it is not the form but the spirit residing in them that the Hindu worships. So the concept that only man is divine is rejected by the Hindus. If this fundamental concept is understood, the superstitious belief will lay with Occidental approach and not the Hindu as it is a true universal religious system. This is time and again stressed in later Purāṇic stories as well.
Similarly the stars of all the deities are listed in the Vedas and their festivals or offerings to the respective deities are done on these specific stars, nakṣatras.
Some gods are called presiding deities of more than one stars, like Indra is deity of stars Chitrā, Rohini and Satabhiṣak. Two gods have same star like Proṣṭapadā of Aja Ekapād and Ahirbhudhniya. It is important that these stars are known for in later times, the festivals for gods in temples were conducted on the day of the same stars, for example the star Ārdra is held to be the one of the stars of Rudra and it is on that star the festival of Naṭarāja is held. Similarly the star Śroṇa (Oṇam) is the star of Viṣṇu and his festival is held on that day. Indra had three stars but his main star seems to be Chaitrā and his festival indra dhvaja is held on the day of Chitrā star in the month of Chitrā as per ancient literature. Thus not only the gods are to be known but also their stars are important to know their stellar association. Viśāka is held to be the star of Kumāra Kārtikeya, but in the Veda it is ascribed to Indrāgni which mean the association of Kumāra is seen with Indra and Agni. Though Kumāra is called Āgneya and his connection with Agni is known, his connection with the dual deity Indrāgni seems to have something to do with his origin.
We have seen multiple deities in the Vedic hymns. In one hymn we get the following as the deities (Devatās). In all these list the leading position is given to Agni.
·Agni
·Vātaḥ
·Sūryaḥ
·Chandramaḥ
·Vasus
·Rudras
·Ādityas
·Viśvedevāḥ
·Marutaḥ
·Bṛahaspati
·Indra
·Varuṇa— (Taittiriya Samhita 4.3.7)
The Vedic hymnal meter (Chandāmsi) are called the favourites bodies of agni chandāmsi vai agneḥ priya tanuḥ.
Agni is called Jyotiṣman with effulgent light and remains for ever with mothers. samvritya prithvīm agneḥ mātribhiḥ jyotiṣman punarāsadaḥ (4.2.13) in sculptural representation the Sapta-māta are found carrying a child in the waist or lap and it seems the presence of the child is due to this hymn which shows the child represents Agni. It is known that the Sapta-matās are called mātṛ gaṇas, and that they were preceded by gaṇa-nātha Śiva at the beginning and Gaṇeśa and the end. They probably are the counterparts of the rudra ganas. Agni is Rudra as has been mentioned and one hymn says that the yajamāna Patron and the adhvaryu (sacrificing priest) should offer libations with the śatarudrīya hymn. 5.4.
We have noted that the deities are associated with space such as Bhū, Bhuvaḥ, and Suvaḥ (earth, intermediate space and heaven) and also star. They are also associated with cosmic time. For example :-
Vasus are united with gāyatri chandas, and related to vasanta ṛtu, Spring.
Rudras united with trishṭup and related to grīṣma ṛtu.
SummerĀdityas with jagati meter and season is varṣa ṛtu,
Rainy seasonVisvedevās with anuṣṭub meter and related to sarad ṛtu autumn
Angirasas with pankti meter and related to hemanta ṛtu, śisira ṛtu pre winter season and winter.
It is a good illustration to show the gods were associated with space, time and cycles of time, integrating them with nature all the time. (TS 7.1.48)
One hymn mentions that the different deities afford protection and show path to the required destination.
·Vasus carry through Gayatri
·Rudras through Anutshṭup
·Adityas through Jagati meters
·Vasus carry devout to Agni
·Rudras to Indra and
·Adityas to Viśvedevās — (Taittiriya samhita 3.3.15)
Why was Agni called Rudra because as Agni he gave a howling sound (rud) they were called Rudras. This is an etymological explanation found in the Veda itself.
so rodit yad arodit tad rudrasy rudratvam
Agni is called in many places as Rudra and at times as Aśura and Mahadeva
tvam āhuh agne rudraḥ aśuraḥ mahā devaḥ
Rudras are also called Gaṇas 33 in number and are said to move through earth and space. They represent sun's rays. (1.3.14).
The following terms are used as synonyms to denote Agni:
Agni, Rudra, Paśupati, Sarva and Mahādeva (TS 1.3.36)
The Paśus, living beings, are those that procreate, have Rudra as their presiding deity.
prājāpatya vai paśavaḥ teṣham rudro adhipatiḥ. —TS
Protection is sought from deities in the following manner:
It is seen Sūrya is requested to protect heaven and wind from outer space; Agni from Earth and Sarasvati to protect from Men and the entrances by Devis, Sūrya, Vūyu and Agni are spoken frequently as lords of the regions heaven, intermediate space and earth. It is however interesting to note that men should be protected from men by Sarasvati especially from their speech because Sarasvati (F.C.29) is identical with Vāk. The last one is equally important as the entrance is to be protected by Deviḥ. In later temples we see that the entrances are always protected by women guardians often portrayed as Gaṅga and Yamuna but in Vedic times they were simply called Devis, Goddesses.
A number of deities are also mentioned as the lords of a single entity as for example Rudra, Agni, Prajāpati, Varuṇa and Viśvakarma are described as lords of Paśus though these may be due to differences in functions.The adoration of Goddesses may be brought under four categories. The first and foremost is Sarasvati who is identical with Vāk Speech which is a unique gift to man. She is mentioned at the very beginning among many male deities and is on par with them. There are also separate hymns addressed to her. The second is What is called three Goddesses tisro devis, namely Iḍā, Bhārati and Sarasvati. Iḍā is identical with Pṛthvī or Vasumatī. Bhārati is associated with Divam that is heaven and Sarasvati is with Rudras and she created Yajñam. These three later developed into Mahādevi, Mahālakṣmi and Mahāsarasvati (F.C. 28) as consorts of Mahādeva, Mahaviṣṇu and Brahma in later times. The third group consists of what is called the four sisters named Anumati, Rākā, Kuhu and Sinīvāli. These four are associated with child birth with Rākā established in the centre. According to the Taittirīya samhita these are propitiated by Prajā kāma and at the same time they are also to be worshipped by those who desire cattle wealth Paśukāmaḥ and Grāma kāma (one desirous of a village) etc. They have been quite popular and worshipped in the Vedic age, though their role is merged with other goddesses like Durgā, Kāli and so on (F.C. 27). The fourth group consisted of some remarkable poetic creations like Uṣas, Aditi, and Pṛthvī and rivers like Gangā, Yamunā, Sapta Sindhus, Apsaras and others.
There is another Goddess who is called as Rohini. She appears in a curious circumstance mainly in the creation legends. In creation, according to Taittirīya samhita she is called Jyotiḥ effulgent light Agni is called the Jyoti of Devas and Virāṭ is called the Jyoti among meters, Chandas. Two entites are brought together at this stage one is Agni and the other is Virāṭ which is identified by the Veda as Vāk. The Agni and Vāk together stand for the sacrificial fire and its associate hymns, which brings in the divine creation. Then it goes on to the creation of Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas and Sūdras and in general Men as a whole.
It is in this hymn we meet with Prajāpati. At first the Veda says there was only waters Āpas and Prajāpati took the form of Varāha and moved in her. There he appeared as Vāyu, wind and found her. He brought her out of waters and engaged in her. As she yielded she was Pṛthvī. Prajāpati engaged with her and created Ekāngā and through her created Vasus, Rudra and Ādityas. They asked what they should do. Prajāpati said that as he created them by tapas, penance so also they do penance and do like wise. He Prajāpati created for them the Agni as the abode and Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas did penance for one Samvatsara and requested Prajāpati to do yajñās for them. He performed Agniṣṭoma sacrifice for Vasus, Ukhya for Rudras and Atirātra for Ādityas. At first Vasus conquered the earth, Rudras the intermediate space and Ādityas the heaven (divam). In this context Indra and Viṣṇu are brought in and also there is an allusion to Brahma, Viṣṇu and Rudra a rare reference to Trinity. Here appears as Kalyāni, Rohini, Piṅgala and Ekāhāyana. The Hymn later mentions that she appeared as Rohini whom it describes as Mūrkhā, Jarati and Lakhmana. At this point there is a suggestion that form of her Jaghanyā Organ, should be made and worshipped. The end of the hymn identifies her with Iḍa, Rohini, Aditi, and Sarasvati.
This hymn needs more deeper study but suggests that the later Srīvidya tradition might have had its origin in this hymn for Ida, Aditi and Sarasvati converging in the imagery points out in that directions. It is known that the so called Aditi Uttānapād also known as Lajjā Cauri sculpture were known from very early time and in that representation we do come across the worship of female organ prominently. (F.C. 30)
It is also known in most mediaeval temples, two female representations are prominently seen. The first is the large number of Apsaras who according to the Veda appear with Gandharvas and protect the sacrifices (Yajñas). There are specific hymns as prayers to them to Protect the sacrifice. The other figures are the female Guardinans at the entrance door jambs. These are also mentioned as dvāra-devis, later identified with Gaṅgā and Yamunā. A careful study of the Vedic hymns show that female deities were as much important as the males and their worship was quite common in Vedic system.
The first appearance of Varāha in the Veda, shows it was Rudra who was addressed as Divine Varāha. As in the case of Rudra Śiva who destroyed three cities Tripura-samhāra, god Viṣṇu transcended three worlds and this exploit is called Vikrama. He ascended the earth by gāyatri chandas and middle space by tṛṣṭup chandas and the heaven with jagati chandas. There is also another Vikrama of Viṣṇu in which he conquered the directions Diśās, through anuṣṭup chandas. That this exploit of Viṣṇu is mentioned in the Taitriya samhita relates to the later Trivkrama episode, (3.2.5). The same Vikrama is again repeated in the next kāṇḍa of the same Veda (5.2.7). Similarly the appearance of Skanda Kārtikeya is also deeply rooted in the Veda particularly with Maruts who are described as the child of Rudra through the river Pṛṣṇi also called as Paruṣṇi.
Finally it is necessary to say that the Vedas are often mystic poems and need to be approached with due understanding. For example there are many Vedic meters that are extolled in the hymns, for example gāyatri, uṣṇik, anuṣṭup, bṛhati, paṅkti, triṣṭub, jagati etc are called chandāmsi, the rhythmic compositions. Interestingly some abstract ideas are also called Chandas as for example prithvī (earth), antarikṣam (mid space), divam (heaven), manas (mind), nakṣatras (stars), kṛṣi (cultivation) and Hiraṇyam (gold) are also called Chandas.
In the preparation of the Vedic (altar) kuṇḍa, sand should be spread and it is on this Agni Vaiśvānara is positioned, this is the sūkta which is said to represent the six Ṛtus Seasons of time. These six seasons constitutes the year Samvatsara. This Samvatsara is identified with Agni, Vaiśvānara which means the fire continues to remain for ever through the Ṛtus/seasons. This is also likened to samudra which is identified with Chandas. The allusion seems to be the Agni, is the sacred seasons surrounded by the Chandas for the auspicious creations Agni and Chandas are suggested in the preparation of sacrificial altar. There is a complete hymn in the Veda on the creation of Vedic altar and its mystic nature (5.2.6).
The Vedic society was a highly poetic society which laid great emphasis on fire worship through Yajñas in which Agni's form is beautifully captured in Poetry, Chandāmsi. So it says the Chandas poetry is the favorite body of Agni.
Similarly the homa in the Vedic altar is also visualized in a mystic way. Tribulation is split into three parts. At first the sacrificer stand to the west of the altar and offers three times facing east the oblation. Then he stands to the south and facing north offers three times. The first three times offering is made to the three lokas and the second includes the six āhutis which represent the six ṛtus seasons. In this process the oblations are made to the cosmic space and cosmic time. There are many such mystic meanings that are found in the Vedas that need careful and proper study to fathom the thought embedded in them. Some are explored in this volume.
